At the 1992 World Health Assembly, European nations came together to endorse the
elimination of iodine deficiency disease. Then in 2002 the United Nations pushed for
eradication of iodine deficiency by 2005. Despite significant progress in the last two
decades, iodine deficiency in Europe lingers today. Why is iodine important, and what
can be done to address this public health concern?
Iodine in the body
Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production and thus involved in energy metabolism.
Insufficient iodine results in hypothyroidism, a condition marked by weight gain, weakness, and
an enlarged thyroid gland (called “goitre”). Iodine deficiency is a significant public health concern,
particularly for pregnant women, infants, toddlers and young children, as prolonged deficiency
during development results in irreversible brain damage and mental retardation.
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Food sources
Iodine is not common in many foods, but the largest quantities can be found in seafood, shellfish, seaweed, and in dairy
products (due to iodised animal feed).
2
The iodine content of foods differs by geographical location, due to varying content in
soil and seawater. Iodised salt is a significant dietary source internationally, but its use varies widely across Europe. When
iodised salt is used in their production, foods with a relatively high salt content such as bread, sausages, cheese, also savoury
snacks and certain ready meals, can contribute meaningfully to dietary iodine intakes.
Recommended and actual intakes
The European Union (EU) has set a recommended daily allowance for adults of 150 µg iodine, with a maximum of 600 µg per
day.
2,3
In 2007, the World Health Organisation (WHO) estimated that 19 European countries had adequate iodine intake, up from just
two countries in 1993.
4
However, out of the 40 European countries surveyed, 13 countries had persistent iodine deficiency.
Increased attention is needed for infants, toddlers and young children, a population particularly susceptible to iodine deficiency.
In 2004, the WHO estimated that 43% of European children at ages 6–12 years had insufficient iodine intake, and a 2010 UK
study in school age girls revealed that 51% of children evaluated were iodinedeficient.
4,5
Vegetarians, persons on a low salt diet and those with a milk or fish allergy are also likely to have insufficient intakes.
Iodised salt
Universal iodised salt has been the most costeffective and successful solution for preventing and treating iodine deficiency
worldwide.
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However, few European countries mandate iodised salt, and legislation varies from country to country. As of 2007,
17 out of 40 European countries had national programmes addressing iodised salt. The use of iodised salt may be increasing,
as 39% of central and eastern European households consumed iodised salt in 2007, up from 27% in 1999.
4
On the other hand, European consumers are eating less salt, largely due to public health initiatives for prevention of high blood
pressure and heart disease. In Europe, salt consumption decreased in the past 50 years to a current average of 8–12 g per
day, and public health recommendations are pushing for 5–6 g per day.
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The balance between decreasing salt intake for
disease prevention, and increasing iodised salt intake raises difficulties for policy makers. Furthermore, consumers are eating
salt mainly from processed foods rather than table salt, which requires the food industry to cooperate with iodised salt
regulators.
Supplementation and fortification
Iodised salt is the principal solution for deficiency, yet other alternatives exist. Iodine supplements have been used
successfully in highestrisk populations such as pregnant women. In Romania, iodised oil successfully replaced iodised salt, and
Italy (Sicily) employs iodised water. Outside of Europe, iodine has been added to tea in China, and tested in sugar in
Guatemala and the Sudan. Increasing iodine content in animal feed can indirectly raise iodine content in dairy products, such
that iodinerich milk is now a major dietary contributor to iodine intake in northern Europe and the UK.
4
Looking forward
In 2010, the EURRECA (EURopean micronutrient RECommendations Aligned) Network of Excellence named iodine one of the
ten highest ranked micronutrients in need for revised nutrient recommendations and unified policy developments.
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Consistent
recommendations and ongoing monitoring are crucial for improved intake.
Iodine deficiency remains a public health concern in Europe, yet renewed alliances between government, industry, and
consumers combined with advances in iodine fortification and iodised salt policy offer great hope for improvement.
References
1. Dunn JT. (2006). Iodine. In M.E. Shils et al. (Eds.), Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, 10th ed. (pp. 302–311).
Philadelphia PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
2. Scientific Committee on Food (2002). Opinion of the Scientific Committee on Food on the tolerable upper intake level of
iodine.
Iodine deficiency in Europe a hidden public health concern
3. Commission Directive 2008/100/EC of 28 October 2008 amending Council Directive 90/496/EEC on nutrition labelling
for foodstuffs as regards recommended daily allowances, energy conversion factors and definitions. OJ L 285, p. 9–12.
4. WHO and UNICEF (2007). Iodine deficiency in Europe: a continuing public health problem. Geneva: WHO.
5. Vanderpump MP et al. (2011). Iodine status of UK school girls: a crosssectional survey. Lancet 377(9782):2007–2012.
6. Busch J et al. (2010). Salt reduction and the consumer perspective. New Food 2/10:36–39.
7. Cavelaars AE et al. (2010). Prioritizing micronutrients for the purpose of reviewing their requirements: a protocol
developed by EURRECA. Eur J Clin Nutr 64(2):S19–30.
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Malnutrition develops when the body does not get the right amount of energy,
protein, vitamins and other nutrients needed to maintain health and normal
organ function. The term ‘malnutrition’ often evokes images of starvation,
commonly associated with developing countries. However, many people are
unaware that poor nutritional status also exists in regions where food is
plentiful.
Defining malnutrition
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines malnutrition as ‘the cellular imbalance
between supply of nutrients and energy and the body's demand for them to ensure
growth, maintenance, and specific functions.’
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Essentially, malnutrition occurs when the
body does not receive enough energy or essential nutrients such as protein, vitamins,
minerals or other nutrients needed to maintain healthy tissues and organ function. The
condition is not confined only to the obviously undernourished; overweight and obese
people can suffer, too. However, in the context of this article, the term refers specifically
to those who are malnourished due to undernutrition.
Undernutrition is a consequence of not consuming or absorbing energy or essential nutrients in proportion to the body’s needs,
or of the body excreting these nutrients more rapidly than they can be replaced. Nutrient losses can be accelerated by a vast
range of conditions including diarrhoea, severe intestinal dysfunction, burns, excessive sweating, heavy bleeding
(haemorrhage), or impaired kidney function. Similarly, nutrient intakes can be restricted due to illness, excessive dieting,
severe injury, lengthy hospitalisation, or substance abuse such as alcohol or drugs. Different disorders can develop depending
on which nutrients are lacking or consumed in excess, but some general symptoms include fatigue, dizziness and unintended
weight loss.
A worldwide problem
The WHO describes malnutrition in the undernourished as the gravest single threat to public health worldwide.
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It is by far the
biggest contributor to child mortality, with six million children dying of hunger every year. Intrauterine growth restrictions and
being underweight at birth cause 2.2 million child deaths a year, while poor or nonexistent breastfeeding is responsible for
another 1.4 million deaths. Nutrient deficiencies, such as lack of vitamin A or zinc, account for yet another 1 million child
deaths. Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency in children worldwide. It is estimated that close to 50% of all
preschool children are anaemic, mostly due to iron deficiency. The malnourished grow up with worse health and lower
educational achievements compared to children with adequate nourishment.
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Malnutrition – the case of Europe
In Europe, an estimated 33 million people are at risk of malnutrition.
2
Studies show that up to one third of patients in hospital
and nursing homes are at risk of undernutrition, as are 10% of individuals over the age of 65 in the European Union (EU).
3,4
Older people living either alone at home or in nursing institutions are particularly vulnerable. Among other factors, appetite
tends to decrease amongst this latter group, leading to reduced food and nutrient intake.
5
Other key risk groups are those with
chronic diseases, people who are living in poverty or are socially isolated and those who have recently been discharged from
hospital.
3
In addition, individuals undergoing rapid growth, such as infants and adolescents, but also pregnant women, have
higher nutritional needs than others, and are therefore more susceptible to the effects of poor nutrition. Extremely premature
infants are a high risk group and may need a five or sixfold increase in their weight before they can be discharged from
hospital care.
Malnutrition can result in compromised immune responses, which may lead to increased risk of infections, poor wound healing,
delayed recovery from illness and longer hospitalisation.
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Other consequences include impaired muscle function, poorer quality
of life, increased mortality, as well as increased healthcare resource use and costs.
3
Detecting malnutrition
There are various screening tools available to help detect malnutrition risk. One of the most wellknown screening tools,
developed in the UK, is called the Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool (MUST).
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MUST is a 5step tool that has been designed
to help identify adults who are underweight and at risk of malnutrition, though it also takes into consideration those who are
obese. However, it is not used to detect deficiencies in or excessive intakes of vitamins and minerals. The 5 steps of MUST are:
Steps 1 and 2 – Gather nutritional status measurements (height, weight, BMI, recent unplanned weight loss)
Step 3 – Consider the effect of acute disease
Step 4 – Determine the overall risk score or category of malnutrition
Step 5 – Using the management guidelines and/or local policy, form an appropriate care plan
Consensus on screening suggests that adequately validated and reliable screening tools such as MUST are a useful way of
identifying patients at risk of malnutrition. Similar screening instruments are also available for children, such as STAMP
(Screening Tool for the Assessment of Malnutrition in Paediatrics).
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Recognising malnutrition
Compared to obesity – a nutritional problem that regularly hits the headlines – malnutrition is still poorly recognised. To
address this issue, the European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN), the European Nutrition for Health
Alliance (ENHA) and the Medical Nutrition International Industry group (MNI) launched a short film in 2008 entitled 'Malnutrition
– Another Weight Problem'.
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The clip emphasises how the problem of malnutrition due to undernutrition poses a health threat
equal to that of obesity and calls for a concerted action from governments, health institutions and professionals. Healthcare
professionals with specialist nutritional skills are also being called upon to use the movie in educating colleagues to reduce the
unnecessary threat of malnutrition in Europe.
However, the general awareness surrounding the issue of malnutrition remains poor. Large scale studies in the UK and the
Netherlands have shown that about 1 in 4 patients are at risk of undernutrition upon admission to hospital and many more go
undiagnosed due to inadequate screening.
3,1012
Similarly, the project “nutritionDay”, which has surveyed thousands of hospital
Time to recognise malnutrition in Europe
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patients across the EU, showed that less than half of patients ate all their meals while in hospital.
13
Health professionals have an important role in ensuring that patients meet their nutritional requirements while in hospital, yet
the levels of knowledge and awareness of nutritional problems are low among caregivers.
14
As a consequence, malnutrition
remains underrecognised and undertreated, despite the existence of treatment guidelines. Often, nutrition therapy has no
place within health and social care budgets.
15
The cost for Europe
Across Europe, malnutrition is associated with increased morbidity, prolonged hospital stays and higher health care costs.
15
This impact has been studied in numerous patient groups.
4
The figures for the community are alarming, with the proportion of
malnourished patients reaching 60% for certain diseases.
14
In the EU, the cost of treating patients with diseaserelated
malnutrition is considerable and approximately twice that of the management of obesity and its consequences.
16
It is estimated
that the cost of malnutrition to the EU alone is a staggering 120 billion Euros per year.
4
In light of this, it is high time nutrition and health strategies concentrated on the important problem of malnutrition in the
undernourished. Interventions to ensure appropriate nutritional care would be costeffective, and the impact of nutritional
support is well known from many clinical trials.
3,15
Although there may be strategies in place to prevent undernutrition,
nutritional support is often disregarded as an important therapeutic tool for the management of patients.
Solutions for the malnourished
A balanced diet that provides the necessary energy and nutrition for a healthy person may not be sufficient when there is
existing chronic malnutrition. To allow recovery of nutritional status, nutritional requirements may be increased compared with
those for a healthy, nourished person. Often, it is not feasible for people who are undernourished due to disease to meet their
requirements through diet alone. This challenge is partially due to the fact that many suffer from a chronic loss of appetite,
which affects food intake; other factors may also impair food intake. In these cases the diet may be supplemented with oral
nutritional supplements (ONS), which are energy and nutrientdense products regulated as “food for special medical purposes”
in the EU. An intake of ONS of between 200 and 400 millilitres can make a substantial contribution to meeting the requirements
for energy, protein and other important components such as vitamins. There is increasing clinical evidence to demonstrate the
nutritional, functional and clinical benefits of ONS, particularly in acutely ill and older patients, and there are also numerous
guidelines available which refer to ONS use.
15
Apart from the potential benefits of ONS to the health of the individual, economic
advantages may also be derived.
16
Combating and preventing malnutrition – a policy for the future
Many steps have been made over recent years to gain more attention for malnutrition at European level. In 2011, a multi
stakeholder meeting was held in Warsaw under the auspices of the Polish Presidency of the EU, which involved representatives
from ESPEN, ENHA, the European Parliament, the Ministry for Health in Poland, the Polish Society for Parenteral and Enteral
Nutrition (POLSPEN), other scientific and professional associations, industry, and patient and health insurance groups. The
consortium issued a warning to EU governments and citizens that diseaserelated malnutrition is a critical public health concern
in Europe, affecting up to 20 million citizens.
4
The meeting identified four key areas to help address the wide range of adverse effects that malnutrition can have on patients
and healthcare systems. Governments, national and local authorities, healthcare professionals, patients, caregivers, industry
and insurance companies were encouraged to work together in publicprivate partnerships to actively promote:
1. Implementation of routine nutritionrisk screening across the EU
2. Public awareness
3. Reimbursement policies
4. Education of medical staff
In summary
Malnutrition not only represents a problem in the developing world, but also affects a large number of people in industrialised
countries. Public health policies across Europe need to accommodate this fact and include measures to raise awareness about
the importance of a varied and balanced diet for good health, and about the risks associated with poor nutritional intake in
disease. Healthcare professionals need to acquire the awareness and necessary skills for assessing malnutrition (risk) – for
which various tools are available – and they need to be provided with adequate infrastructures to carry out screening and
followup. Management of malnourished individuals may include energy and/or nutrientenriched oral nutritional supplements.
Reducing the burden of malnutrition in Europe will result in lower health care costs in the long term, and will improve the
quality of life for many.
Further information
www.medicalnutritionindustry.com
References
1. World Health Organization; UNICEF; UN System Standing Committee on Nutrition (2006). WHO, UNICEF, and SCN
informal consultation on communitybased management of severe malnutrition in children – SCN Nutrition Policy Paper
No. 21. Available at:
http://www.who.int/child_adolescent_health/documents/fnb_v27n3_suppl/en/index.html
2. Ljungqvist O & de Man F. (2009). Undernutrition – A major health problem in Europe. Nutr Hosp 24:368–370.
3. DiseaseRelated Malnutrition: An EvidenceBased Approach To Treatment, edited by Rebecca J Stratton, Ceri J Green,
and Marinos Elia, 2003, 824 pages. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, United Kingdom.
4. Ljungqvist O et al. (2010). The European fight against malnutrition. Clin Nutr 29(2):149–150.
5. Donini LM et al. (2003). Eating habits and appetite control in the elderly: the anorexia of aging. Int Psychogeriatr 15
(1):73–87.
6. Kondrup J et al. (2002). Incidence of nutritional risk and causes of inadequate nutritional care in hospitals. Clin Nutr 21
(6):461–468.
7. Todorovic V et al. (eds) on behalf of the Malnutrition Advisory Group (2003). The ‘MUST’ Explanatory Booklet. A Guide
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to the ‘Malnutrition Universal Screening Tool’ (‘MUST’) for Adults. Available at:
http://www.bapen.org.uk/pdfs/must/must_explan.pdf
8.
9. ESPEN website, Video clip “Malnutrition – Another Weight Problem”. Available at:
http://www.espen.org/video.html
10. Russell C & ELia M. Nutrition Screening Survey in the UK in 2008: Hospitals, care homes and mental health units. 2009.
Redditch, BAPEN.
11. Kruizenga HM et al. (2003). Screening of nutritional status in The Netherlands. Clin Nutr 22:147–152.
12. Meijers JM et al. (2009). Malnutrition prevalence in The Netherlands: results of the annual Dutch national prevalence
measurement of care problems. Br J Nutr 101:417–423.
13. Hiesmayr M et al. (2009). Decreased food intake is a risk factor for mortality in hospitalised patients: the NutritionDay
survey 2006. Clin Nutr 28(5):484–491.
14. Hajjar R et al. (2004). Malnutrition In Aging. The Internet Journal of Geriatrics and Gerontology 1(1).
15. Stratton RJ & Elia M. (2007). A review of reviews: A new look at the evidence for oral nutritional supplements in clinical
practice. Clin Nutr Suppl 2(1):5–23.
16. Russell CA. (2007). The impact of malnutrition on healthcare costs and economic considerations for the use of oral
nutritional supplements. Clin Nutr Suppl 2(1): 25–32.
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It is estimated that the number of obese people in Europe has increased threefold
since the 1980’s, also in countries with traditionally low prevalence. At the same
time we live longer than ever. And with age the risk for overweight increases. So,
are Europeans really getting fatter? Or are we just getting older? How big is the
overweight problem really? The World Health Organization has found out.
Achieving comparable, ageadjusted data
Comparing studies on the prevalence of obesity is notoriously difficult due to variations in
methodology and population, as well as potential confounding factors. One such factor to
take into account for a more accurate picture of the magnitude of the overweight and
obesity problem and its development, is that populations are growing older. Europeans live
longer and birth rates are low. Overweight and obesity are most common in older adults
and hence a higher number of older adults implies more overweight and obese individuals
in the population.
Several organisations, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the International Obesity Taskforce (IOTF) and Eurostat,
the statistical office of the European Union, hold databases on overweight and obesity in European countries. However, no
conclusions based on the totality of these data have been drawn previously, mainly due to limited comparability. But recently
WHO Europe has compiled and standardised, by age, data available from these and other organisations, as well as scientific
publications. This has resulted in a map of obesity trends from 1981–2005 in adults aged 25–64 years in the 53 countries of the
WHO European Region.
1
Selfreported and measured data were analysed separately to avoid erroneous conclusions.
Common patterns
The analysis of measured data reveals some patterns across the WHO European Region. In all countries, for men and women,
higher prevalence of overweight (Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥25) and obesity (BMI ≥30) was demonstrated among older people
(50–64 years) than in the younger age group (25–49 years). Overweight was shown to be more common in men than women,
while obesity was more common in women across Europe. Exceptions occurred in Ireland and the UK, where obesity was more
common in men in some surveys.
Prevalence and time trends across Europe
The highest rate of overweight in men was reported from the UK, where more than 70% were overweight in the early 2000’s.
The highest obesity rates were also reported from the UK, where 1 in 4 men was affected. Similar obesity rates were seen in
Irish women, who demonstrated the highest rates in Europe. Overweight was most common in British women of which nearly
60% had a BMI ≥25. Populations in Eastern European countries, Balkan and former Soviet republics were in general leaner
than the Western Europeans, with overweight rates as low as 40% and obesity affecting less than 10%.
The development over time shows an increase in both overweight and obesity in all countries for both men and women.
Interestingly, in Irish men the rise in obesity was greater than for overweight, while in other countries the trends are equal. In
Irish women, the overall trend for obesity was increasing, but was actually decreasing among the older (50–64 years) women,
the only group for which a negative trend was reported.
More selfreported than measured data were available. Selfreported data showed that obesity rates in most countries ranged
from 10–14.9% in 2001–2005, followed by 15–19.9%. The number of countries with obesity rates higher than 20% was greater
than those with less than 10% obesity. Self reported data on overweight in men ranged from around 50% in Switzerland and
Latvia to nearly 70% in Slovakia and Malta. The lowest obesity prevalence was reported from Switzerland and Italy, the
highest in Greece and Malta where more than 1 in 4 men were obese. Switzerland and Italy had the lowest proportion of
overweight women, Greece and the UK the highest. Obesity prevalence in women was lowest in Switzerland and Sweden,
highest in Greece, Malta and Latvia.
On a global level the obesity prevalence in adults is 7.7% in men and 9.8% in women. Particularly affected are a number of
populations in the WHO Western Pacific Region, the West Indies, the United States of America and Australia.
2
Conclusions
Agestandardised overweight and obesity prevalence has increased over time in most European countries. This means that the
increasing number of Europeans with excess weight is not only a consequence of a greater number of elderly, who are more
prone to be overweight than younger people, but that the population in general has become more overweight.
Further information
WHO
Europe,
Obesity
section
–
http://www.euro.who.int/en/whatwedo/healthtopics/diseasesand
References
1. Doak CM et al. (2012). Age standardization in mapping adult overweight and obesity trends in the WHO European
Region. Obes Rev 13(2):174–191. doi:
10.1111/j.1467789X.2011.00943.x
. Epub 2011 Nov 7.
2. WHO Global Infobase:
https://apps.who.int/infobase/
, accessed 6 December 2010.
How big is the overweight problem in Europe? WHO knows!
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