Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence is a strong indicator for present and
future cardiovascular, metabolic, skeletal and mental health. To aid in the
development of screening protocols that could help identify young people most in
need of improved fitness, researchers from the HELENA project have derived age
and sex specific normative values for physical fitness in European adolescents.
What is physical fitness?
Physical fitness is not a single trait but a combination of aerobic capacity, strength, speed,
agility, coordination and flexibility, which together determine a person’s ability to perform
physical activity, including those activities related to daily living. On a practical, everyday
level, physical fitness allows a person to work efficiently, reduce the risk of injury, cope with
unforeseen circumstances, and enjoy being active whether for sport, exercise or leisure.
Physical fitness has also been revealed as an important health and wellbeing marker and
recent results from the HELENA study have clearly demonstrated that this is also the case in
European adolescents.
14
HELENA fitness standards
As part of the HELENA study, researchers in ten different European cities assessed muscular and aerobic fitness, speed, agility and
flexibility in almost 3,500 adolescents aged between 12 and 18 years. Nine common and well standardised fitness tests were used
to provide harmonised measurements of physical fitness in European adolescents according to age and sex.
5
These normative
values have been prepared so that an individual can rank their fitness on a scale of 110. From a public health perspective these
values could be used in the school or health care setting to identify young people with very low fitness levels who may need
further investigation for comorbidities. The fitness scale could also be used to motivate youngsters to develop their fitness so
they can progress up the scale.
Fitness and health markers
Data from over a thousand adolescents participating in the HELENA study has recently been analysed to further understand the
relationship between risk factors for cardiovascular disease and physical fitness.
4
Measures of body fatness: Body Mass Index
(BMI), skinfold thickness and waist circumference, in both male and female adolescents, were significantly lower in those with
high aerobic fitness compared to those with low aerobic fitness. Similarly, risk factors for cardiovascular disease such as
cholesterol levels, triglycerides, homocysteine levels and insulin resistance markers were found to be more favourable in those
with higher aerobic fitness.
Not just good for the heart
A recent review found that aerobic fitness is not just good for the heart but also has a positive effect on depression, anxiety,
mood status, selfesteem, and appears to be associated with higher academic performance. Muscular fitness, speed and agility
were found to have a positive effect on skeletal health, such as increased bone density.
1
This and many other studies highlight
the pivotal role of physical activity in both increasing physical fitness and improving the health profile of youngsters. Vigorous
physical activity, characterised by increased heart rate and heavy breathing, is the most beneficial.
Good news
It is encouraging that nearly two thirds of European adolescents (60%) have a level of aerobic fitness that is associated with a low
risk of heart disease.
5
Clearly this should be celebrated, and these adolescents must be encouraged to keep up the good work.
On the other hand, 40% may be at increased risk of future heart disease and this group of adolescents must be encouraged to
improve their fitness levels to enhance and preserve their current and future health.
The future
Data obtained from HELENA highlights the need for the development, testing and implementation of public health strategies to
improve physical fitness, especially in those adolescents with low aerobic fitness.
6
The development of normative values for
physical fitness is an important milestone that will enable the correct interpretation of European adolescents’ fitness status and
can be used, for example, to develop screening and fitness improvement programmes.
References
1. Ortega FB, Ruiz JR Castillo MJ, Sjöström M (2008). Physical fitness in childhood and adolescence a powerful marker of
health. International Journal of Obesity 32(1):111.
2. Ruiz JR, CastroPiñero J, Artero EG, Ortega FB, Sjöström M, Suni J, Castillo MJ (2009). Predictive validity of health
related fitness in youth: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine. Published online
doi:10.1136/bjsm.065499
3. HELENA – Healthy Lifestyle in Europe by Nutrition in Adolescence. Details of the EU funded programme available at
4. The HELENA study. Traditional and novel cardiovascular risk factors in European Adolescents: Role of cardiorespiratory
Tracking teen fitness across Europe
fitness. Personal communication
5. Ortega FB et al (2009). Physical fitness levels among European adolescents: The HELENA Study. British Journal of
Sports Medicine. Published online doi:10.1136/bjsm.062679
6. Ruiz JR, Ortega FB, Gutierrez A, Sjöström M, Castillo MJ (2006). Healthrelated physical fitness assessment in childhood
and adolescence; A European approach based on the AVENA, EYHS and HELENA studies. Journal of Public Health
14:269277.
2
Food additives are used to enhance flavour, texture, shelflife and nutritional
properties of the foods we eat. As consumer interest about this often
misunderstood topic continues to thrive, the key facts about a range of food
additives are outlined below.
What are food additives?
Food additives are substances that are added to foods to serve specific technical purposes,
and are grouped depending on the function they perform when added to foods, e.g.
stabilisers, thickeners, gelling agents, anticaking agents, glazing agents, packaging gases
and propellants.
1
Only substances that are not normally consumed as a food in itself and
that are not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of food, qualify as additives. In the
European Union (EU), three directives establish the list of additives which could be used (to
the exclusion of others), the foods in which they could be used and any maximum levels.
24
Additives approved as safe for use in food are given an Enumber (E for Europe), which is
also a simple and convenient way to label permitted additives across the range of languages
in the EU.
Stabilisers
Many foods contain mixtures of oil and water, known as emulsions. Emulsions are formed using substances called emulsifiers,
which allow water and oil to be mixed together. Stabilisers are used in foods, such as mayonnaise, vinaigrettes and ice creams to
prevent emulsions from separating and thus, help to maintain the physical and textural properties of foods.
5
Common stabilisers
include locust bean gum (E410) and alginates (E400 – 404).
6
Thickeners
Thickeners are added to fluid foods to increase viscosity, and are usually composed of carbohydrates e.g., hydroxypropyl methyl
cellulose (E464).
6
Carbohydratebased thickeners cause fluids to thicken during heating, when the starch granules from which
carbohydrates are composed adsorb water and swell. This process results in the trapping of water molecules by the starch granule,
causing the fluid to thicken. Thickeners are added to a wide range of foods including sauces and gravies.
Gelling Agents
Gelling agents are used to thicken and stabilise liquid foods, thus giving them texture. Although they perform a very similar
purpose to thickeners, as the name suggests, gelling agents form gels. Gelling agents are generally proteins or carbohydrates,
which when dissolved in liquid foods form a threedimensional crosslinked network within the liquid. This creates a unique food,
which is solid in appearance, yet is mostly composed of liquid, e.g. jellies, jams and confectionery. Common gelling agents
include pectin (E440) and carrageenan (E407).
6
Anticaking Agents
Powdered or granular foods are liable to moisture absorption, causing the particles to become sticky and form clumps, known as
caking. Caking makes it very difficult to use powdered or granular foods as they can no longer be weighed, spread or mixed
evenly. Anticaking substances work by coating food particles and absorbing excess moisture. This repelling of moisture from the
food surface helps to prevent caking and retain the food’s freeflowing characteristics. One of the most commonly used anti
caking agents is calcium silicate (E552), which is used to prevent caking in baking powder and table salts.
6
Glazing Agents
Glazing agents (also known as polishing agents), are used to impart a shiny, polished and protective coating to foods, such as
confectionery, fruits and bakery products. Common glazing agents include; beeswax (E901), Carnauba wax (E903) and fatty acids
(E570).
6
Packaging Gases
Packaging gases are used to modify the atmosphere in which foods are packed in order to control ripening, inhibit chemical
changes and prevent spoilage. This is achieved using a technique known as Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP), whereby the
air within the packaging is replaced with a mixture of pure gases, e.g. oxygen (E948), carbon dioxide (E290) and nitrogen
(E941).
6
Depending on the food and the desired effect, different formulations of gases are ‘flushed’ into the packaging. For
example, mixtures of carbon dioxide (3060%) and nitrogen (4070%) can inhibit the growth of many microorganisms and may
be used to reduce microbial spoilage of meats and fish, whilst combinations of carbon dioxide (2030%) and oxygen (7080%)
may be used to help prevent the discolouration of red meats.
7
Propellants
Pressurised aerosol containers are used to dispense fluid food products in the form of a liquid, foam or spray. The use of
propellants provides the necessary pressure to force the fluid food out of the aerosol container. The most commonly used
propellants include nitrogen (E941), nitrous oxide (E942) and carbon dioxide (E290).
6
The latter propellants are generally used to
dispense foam and spray type products, such as whipped creams, cheese and mustard. This is because nitrous oxide and carbon
dioxide tend to dissolve in the fluid food and expand during its release from the container, causing the formation of a spray or
foam. Nitrogen does not exhibit such properties and thus is used to dispense foods that are required in a liquid form, e.g. oils
and syrups.
8
Further information
EUFIC backgrounder Food Additives:
www.eufic.org/article/en/expid/basicsfoodadditives
Some food additives explained
3
References
1.
EUROPA (The European Union Online), Food Safety – From the Farm to the Fork section
, accessed 27
September 2009.
2. European Parliament and Council Directive 94/35/EC (1994) on sweeteners for use in foodstuffs. Official Journal of the
European Communities L237, 10.9.94, 312.
3. European Parliament and Council Directive 94/36/EC (1994) on colours for use in foodstuffs. Official Journal of the
European Communities L237, 10.9.94, 1329.
4. European Parliament and Council Directive 95/2/EC (1995) on food additives other than colours or sweeteners. Official
Journal of the European Communities L61, 18.3.95, 140.
5.
The Food Standards Agency, Safer Eating section
, accessed 27 September 2009.
6.
Federation of European Food Additives, Food Enzymes and Food Cultures Industries, The Varieties
, accessed 27 September 2009.
7. Robertson GL (2005). Food Packaging – Principle and Practice. Taylor and Francis Ltd, p. 313331.
8. Fennema OR (1996). Food Chemistry – Food Science and Technology. Marcel Dekker Inc, p. 811–812.
4
Advice to consumers is to increase the amount of fish we eat, to guard against
cardiovascular diseases. However, should consumers be concerned about the
ethics of eating wild fish and is farmed fish a healthy choice?
Fishing on demand for health
Fish and seafood are known to provide a valuable source of protein, essential vitamins and
minerals. In addition, dietary recommendations for most of the European population
suggest eating one or two portions of oily fish (e.g. salmon or mackerel) weekly. The
recommendations are based on the knowledge that oily fish are an excellent source of
omega3 fatty acids, which are beneficial to cardiovascular health and also to foetal
development.
1,2
How is your fish produced?
Globally, the consumption of fish has increased greatly over recent decades.
3
In the
European Union (EU), fish catches have declined but consumption has increased by at least 10% over the last decade, with the
increase met by farmed fish. Currently, it is estimated that around twothirds of the fish caught in the EU is caught from the wild.
4
Examples of predominantly farmed fish include salmon, rainbow trout and carp, whilst wildcaught fish include herring, tuna,
mackerel and pilchards. For wild fish, the nutritional content and contaminant levels are dependent on many factors, which are not
easily controlled: species, season, diet, location, life stage and age. Fish higher up the food chain (e.g. salmon, tuna, swordfish)
can accumulate contaminants. In fish that are raised using techniques of aquaculture – or farming methods – there can be tighter
control over the diet the fish eat, and there are strict EU regulations concerning contaminants in farmed fish.
Nutritional value of farmed versus wild fish
Farmed fish are fed a controlled diet, usually based on fish oil and fish meal. This diet is not subject to the seasonal variations
found in the diets of wild fish. Consequently, research has found that lipid levels in farmed fish are more constant than those of
wild fish.
3
Fishmeal to feed farmed predator fish (e.g. salmon) is mainly produced from fish not meant for human consumption, such as
capelin or sprat. Vegetable sources of fishmeal are being used increasingly, however this could reduce the amount of omega3
fatty acids in farmed fish. Feeding a fishderived diet for the last few weeks can be employed to offset such an effect.
Sustainability of fish for consumers
It is estimated that if current fishing practices continue, fish stocks will be severely depleted within 40 years. In the EU marine
area, just over 10% of fish stocks are sustainable. Clearly, farmed fish could provide a solution to meet the demand sustainably.
Despite studies showing that there are no sensory differences between farmed and wild fish, consumers perceive wild fish to be
more healthy and tasty than farmed fish.
5
However, there are advantages of farmed fish, namely:
l
Regular supplies
l
Consistent nutritional content
l
Strict controls on production
l
Cheaper, more stable prices
l
Traceability
Research has shown that although consumers attach high value to the sustainability and ethics of fish production, this interest is
not necessarily associated with attitudes and purchasing behaviour.
5
Refusing to eat wild fish has been associated with ethical
concerns, whereas refusing to eat farmed fish is linked to expected lower quality of the food. Aquaculture is not without negative
environmental effects: overfishing to produce fish feed, change in habitats, effluents and the impact on biodiversity when fish
escape from farms. In response, a number of EU projects have been funded to optimise aquaculture so that it can meet
consumer demand in a responsible and sustainable fashion.
In addition, it is perceived that farmed fish are less healthy. However, due to the controlled environment, diseases can be
contained in farmed fish, thus improving fish welfare.
6
An important goal of aquaculture is to ensure an acceptable level of welfare
such that farmed fish are comparable with ‘natural’ wild fish.
In summary
For the consumer, both farmed and wild fish are safe and nutritious to eat, with no major differences between them, provided that
farmed fish are raised under appropriate conditions. In response to overfishing, farmed fish is a viable alternative to meet
nutritional recommendations to eat more fish.
Further information
EU project RAFOA (Researching Alternatives to Fish Oils in Aquaculture)
EU project AQUAMAX (Sustainable Aquafeeds to Maximise the Health Benefits of Farmed Fish for Consumers)
EU project CONSENSUS (Towards Sustainable Aquaculture in Europe)
http://www.euraquaculture.info/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=21&Itemid=60
References
1. Mente A, de Koning L, Shannon HS, Anand SS (2009). A systematic review of the evidence supporting a causal link
between dietary factors and coronary heart disease. Archives of Internal Medicine 169(7):65969.
Plenty more fish in the sea?
5
2. Innis SM (2007). Dietary (n3) fatty acids and brain development. Journal of Nutrition 137(4):8559.
3. Cahu C et al (2004). Farmed and wild fish in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases: Assessing possible differences
in lipid nutritional values. Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases 14:3441.
4. European Food Safety Authority. Opinion of the Scientific Panel on contaminants in the food chain [CONTAM] related to
the safety assessment of wild and farmed fish. Available at:
http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/efsa_locale
1178620753812_1178620762697.htm
5. Verbeke W et al (2007). Perceived importance of sustainability and ethics related with fish: a consumer behaviour
perspective. Journal of the Human Environment 36:5805.
6. Bergh O (2007). The dual myths of the healthy wild fish and the unhealthy farmed fish.Diseases of Aquatic Organisms
75:15964.
6
We want everything from food these days great taste, good nutrition, value for
money, convenience and safety and we expect no less of cheese. But can
cheese fulfil all these criteria? Fat and salt are fundamental components of
cheese, so is it possible to make cheese healthier without compromising other
attributes?
A European tradition
Cheese is synonymous with Europe. Parmesan and Mozzarella from Italy, Gouda from the
Netherlands, Danish Blue from Denmark, Brie and Camembert from France, Feta from
Greece; the list goes on. In fact, European countries dominate both the world’s production
and consumption of this popular food. The Greeks, French, Swiss and Danish are among the
high cheese consumers, whereas the Hungarians and Irish eat the least.
1
Cheeses fall into several categories, but irrespective of type, all cheese making requires the
separation of milk into solid curds and liquid whey. This usually involves souring the milk
with bacteria and adding rennet, which firms the resulting curds. This, however, is where uniformity ends. From here, a cheese
may be washed, drained, heated, stretched, aged or ripened, depending on the desired end product. For example, heating and
ageing produces a hard cheese, stretching gives us mozzarella and ripening produces the delicious array of brie, camembert and
blue cheeses.
Nutrient dense
Cheese is a major source of protein and calcium for many Europeans. These nutrients are both essential for normal growth and
development, particularly of bones and teeth. A matchbox sized piece of hard cheese (4050 g) provides about a fifth of an
adult’s protein needs and approximately a third of the calcium needed by teenagers each day. The calcium in cheese and other
dairy products is more easily used than that in plant foods. Cheese also contains vitamins A, B
2
, niacin, B
12
, and D, plus minerals
such as zinc and phosphorus.
2
Harder cheeses tend to contain greater amounts than soft cheeses, but all provide some. The
same is true for fat and salt – harder cheese often being higher in both.
Fat
The fat content of cheese ranges from below 10 g to about 35 g per 100 g of cheese; cottage cheese the lowest, harder cheeses
nearer the top end. Whether a high fat Cheddar or a lower fat cottage cheese, the majority of fat is saturated – usually over 60%
(Table 1).
2
With health advice across Europe encouraging a reduction in saturated fat intake, cheese makers are offering lower fat
versions, particularly of the hard cheeses.
3
Yet not all saturated fatty acids have the same health impact, and milk and dairy
products commonly form part of national dietary recommendations.
4,5
Therefore, using smaller amounts of the regular varieties
may be an acceptable compromise for those trying to eat less (saturated) fat.
Salt
The other nutrient in cheese raising health concerns is sodium. In a similar way to fat, salt (sodium chloride) has some key
functions in cheese, contributing to flavour, texture and, importantly, safety. Bacteria are used in almost all cheese production,
but there are those which are unwanted as well as those needed for ripening and production of specific flavour compounds. Salt
controls the growth of all these bacteria. Producing acceptable lowersodium cheeses remains a challenge, therefore efforts to
reduce sodium may be more successful in other foods. In addition, the calcium and potassium in cheese may help counteract
sodium’s potentially negative health effects, underlining the benefit of nutrients working synergistically in whole foods.
3
Part of a healthy balanced diet
Cheeses are generally wellliked and enjoyed in European food cultures in a variety of ways: on top of bread, as a menu item,
and as a component adding to flavour and texture. In its natural state, cheese is relatively high in fat and salt, but also high on
taste, convenience and safety. Reducing fat alters texture and flavour, reducing salt jeopardises safety, but doing both increases
nutritional value. As all cheese contains essential vitamins and minerals, whichever is your favourite, it’s a nutrientdense food.
Cheese, when consumed in moderation, is an important part of a healthy, balanced diet and at the centre of European culture.
Table 1 Nutritional composition of some common cheeses per 100 g
Source
2
References
1. RohnerThielen E (2008). From grass to glass; a look at the dairy chain. Eurostat Statistics in focus 76/2008. Available
Cheese: a European tradition
Protein (g)
Fat (g)
Saturated fat
(g)
Sodium (mg)
Calcium
(mg)
Brie
20.3
29.1
18.2
556
256
Camembert
21.5
22.7
14.2
605
235
Cheddar
25.4
34.9
21.7
723
739
Cottage (plain)
12.6
4.3
2.3
300
127
Danish Blue
20.5
28.9
19.1
1220
488
Edam
26.7
26.0
15.8
996
795
Feta
15.6
20.2
13.7
1440
360
Mozzarella
18.6
20.3
13.8
395
362
Parmesan
36.2
29.7
19.3
756
1025
Roquefort
19.7
32.9
20.7
1670
530
7
at:
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KSSF08076/EN/KSSF08076EN.PDF
2. Food Standards Agency, Science and Research section. Dietary surveys:
http://www.food.gov.uk/science/dietarysurveys/dietsurveys/
, accessed 20 November 2009
3. Johnson ME, Kapoor R, McMahon DJ, McCoy DR, Narasimmon RG (2009). Reduction of sodium and fat levels in natural
and processed cheeses: scientific and technological aspects. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety
8:252268.
4. EUFIC Food Today n° 66 (2009). Taking a closer look at saturated fat. Available at:
www.eufic.org/article/en/page/FTARCHIVE/artid/Saturatedfatupclose
5. EUFIC Review (2009). FoodBased Dietary Guidelines in Europe. Available at:
www.eufic.org/article/en/page/RARCHIVE/expid/foodbaseddietaryguidelinesineurope
8